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"Judge a man by his questions rather than his answers."
— Voltaire |
Individual Interviews
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This section includes these parts. Click on each for more.
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Fundamentals
One of the most valuable ways to get data is by directly asking program participants,
staff, or other people involved with the program questions that can help answer the
evaluation questions. The main goal of an individual interview is to hear the participant's
point of view in his or her own words. Most commonly, evaluators analyze the results
of personal interviews by looking through the transcripts for insightful comments and
common themes. They then give a written report to program management. Thus, the
interviewees' words become the evaluation data, with direct quotes serving as useful
supporting evidence of the evaluators' assessments.
Individual interviews are the best way to get qualitative evaluation information when:
- The subject is sensitive (e.g., smoking in under-age youth),
- People are likely to be inhibited in speaking about the topic in front of strangers, or
- Bringing a group of people together is difficult (e.g., in rural areas).
Although individual interviews can be time-consuming,
they are useful because you can get specific information
and ask follow-up questions to get more detail when
something new or of particular interest comes up.1
Individual interviews can be structured or
unstructured. In structured interviews, the
evaluator decides what to ask in what order. As a result,
structured interviews can only get participants' perceptions
of the issues the evaluator believes to be
important.2
In unstructured interviews, the flow of conversation
is more open and natural. This allows respondents to
express their views about a program's good and bad points
without being prejudiced by the evaluator's own beliefs,
and allows them to discuss points that are of importance
to them and points that may not have occurred to the
evaluator.
Individual Interviews have the advantage of being able
to ask for more information about the meaning of participants'
responses. They also produce statements about the program
in the respondents' own words, which can be valuable
in promoting the program. Often program supporters want
to hear from the "person" behind the program. Through
the interview, the interviewee becomes a partner in,
rather than the object of, the evaluation.3
On the other hand, individual interviews can be more
costly and take more time than questionnaires. Interviewing
requires trained personnel to make clear the meaning
of questions, establish rapport with the respondent,
and probe responses without leading the respondent to
give certain answers.4
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When to Use
When the goal of collecting data is to have an individual, open-ended discussion on a range
of issues and to obtain in-depth information on an individual basis about perceptions and concerns,
then individual interviews are the best approach.
Individual interviews are particularly useful when:
- The topic is too sensitive for a group discussion
- The target population differs in age, ethnicity, culture, or social background from program staff
- Program staff has a different professional background
from those directing the program
- Participants may have a low reading ability
- It is difficult to gather people in groups due to schedules and/or geographic location
Individual interviews with broad, open-ended questions are especially valuable when the evaluator
wants to understand either: 1) the strengths and weaknesses of a new or modified program before
it is in effect, or 2) the cause of a problem should one develop after the program is in effect.
Interviews can be used at any time during the data gathering process, but they are especially useful
when you are trying to create a program that appeals to your particular target audience, or to find out
what isn't working if the program runs into problems.
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Interview Validity and Reliability
Since individual interviews are designed to obtain information regarding personal perceptions
and experiences, what the individual reports is accepted as a valid representation of that individual's
perceptions. There are, however, steps you can take to put the information in context.
- Reliability of information obtained
in individual interviews can be assessed by asking
for a repeat of information later in the interview,
or by re-interviewing the respondent about key points.
It can also be assessed by having several interviewees
report about the same topic. Valuable information
obtained in one interview can be tested in subsequent
interviews by asking about similar experiences.
- Validity of the reported information
can sometimes be assessed through comparison with
program documentation. For example, if an interviewee
says she was never invited to the seminar on clean
indoor air, this can be verified through the correspondence
log that contains a copies of the letters of invitation
that were sent. If the letter was sent, then it will
be important to explore what may have caused the letter
not to come to the attention of the recipient. Was
it never received? Did it not clearly convey its content?
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Interview Instruments
Data collection instruments for individual interviews are called "interview guides." In general,
they contain open-ended questions, or topics, designed to get the participant to talk. The format
of these questions/topics can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
A structured interview guide would have specific open-ended questions and follow
a prescribed format, as shown below. Note that each question is worded in a way that requires the
respondent to give more than a one-word answer. When a yes/no question is required, follow it with
a probe to elicit more information. For example:
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Question: How did you get introduced to the issue of smoke-free environments?
Probe: Did you speak with anyone from Program X? [PROBES: (If yes) Would you please
tell me about that experience? (If no) What do you know about Program X?]
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A semi-structured interview guide might have some specific topic areas and a
general order, as shown below, but the interviewer would follow the natural course of the conversation
and cover each topic as it came up. For example:
- How did you learn about smoke-free environments?
- What do you know about Program X?
- How would you describe the reputation of Program X?
- What are some ways Program X might be improved?
- What are some things Program X is doing well?
An unstructured interview would have only a general subject area to be explored,
leaving as much of the content as possible to the respondent, and following the respondent's lead. The
opening question might introduce the topic as follows:
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I'm interested in getting your perspective about Program X. What would you like to tell me about it?
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In addition to the content of the interview, it may also be important to gather demographic information,
data on attendance at the program, or other classifying information from the respondent. If so, these items
may be asked at the beginning or the end of the interview. When asked at the beginning, these questions
can serve as ice-breakers.
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| Sample
Questions
The following are sample questions an interviewer might
ask respondents who participated in a seminar that your
coalition/team conducted in your community about awareness
of the dangers of secondhand smoke in the workplace.
There are two sets of sample questions: one for the
participants and one for the facilitators.
Interviewees: Participants
- If I were in your seminar on the dangers of secondhand smoke, what would I see taking place?
- What did you like best about the seminar? Probe: Why?
- Were the examples of people whose health was impacted by secondhand smoke in the workplace helpful for
your understanding of the importance of this issue? Probe: Why? / Why not?
Interviewees: Facilitators
- What worked well with the audience in the discussion about legislation currently in place in many
states? What did not work well?
- Did it appear that the audience understood the language and process of legislation? Probe:
What led you to this conclusion?
- What difficulties did you encounter?
- Was anything missing from the seminar that you expected to cover? Probe: If so, what?
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Format and Logistics
Before conducting an individual interview, the interviewer will need to contact the respondent
to get permission for the interview and schedule a convenient time. At this time, the respondent
should be told the following:
- The general purpose of the interview and how long
it is expected to take
- The interview will be audio- or videotape recorded
- The steps that will be taken to keep the information
confidential
- Contact information for the interviewer, in case
the respondent needs to make any changes or ask additional
questions
The phone call should be followed up by sending a copy of the interview guide, if appropriate.
Data collection for qualitative individual interviews may be conducted in one of two ways: in person
or by telephone. The following are explanations of these approaches, and how to conduct each.
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In-person interviews should take place at a location that is convenient and comfortable for the
respondent. Before beginning, the interviewer should take a moment to make sure the respondent is
comfortable, and review the purpose of the interview. This should be done using a standard format
with each participant. After the introduction, the interviewer can begin to follow the
questions/topics on the interview guide.
Once the interview is complete, it is important
to ask the respondent if there is any additional
information he would like to provide, to ask if
he has any remaining questions for the interviewer,
and to thank the respondent. If there is an incentive
for participation, e.g., a gift certificate, it
can be given at this time. Be sure to leave the
respondent with information regarding how to reach
the interviewer in case additional questions arise.
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In a telephone interview, it is important to make good use of the time, since people will not
want to spend a long time on the telephone. As with in-person interviews, when beginning a telephone
interview, the interviewer should briefly ensure that the respondent is comfortable and review the
purpose of the interview before beginning to follow the interview guide.
As in face-to-face interviews, when the interview
is complete it is important to ask the respondent
if there is any additional information she would
like to provide, to ask if she has any remaining
questions for the interviewer, and to thank the
respondent. If there is an incentive for participation
(e.g., small gift), let the respondent know how
he or she will receive this and leave the respondent
with information regarding how to reach the interviewer
in case additional questions arise.
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Once the interview is over, it should be transcribed verbatim from the tape. The name of the
interviewee and/or other identifying persons (such as a partner or child) or information (such as
address) should be disguised or omitted in the transcripts. Once the transcripts are completed
and verified, the tape can be destroyed. This will protect the privacy of the respondent. The
verbatim comments of the respondent will be the information that is used in the analysis of the
interviews.
For either type of interview, here are some summary points about how to do it well.
- Decide beforehand whether you want to audiotape or videotape the interview.
- Complete your interview guide before the interview, and give it to the person being
interviewed, if possible.
- Decide whether there is other information (e.g., gender, age, or program attendance)
that is needed.
- Put the persons being interviewed at ease by ensuring
that they are comfortable, and telling them the purpose
of the interview and how you will use what they tell
you.
- Avoid questions that can be answered briefly. The interviewer's objective is to have as
much of the conversation as possible generated spontaneously by the interviewee.
- Transcribe the interview verbatim when it is complete, being sure to disguise identifying
information.
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1. Source:
Prime II Project. (n.d.). Data
gathering methods. In Performance improvement toolkit.
Retrieved April 12, 2004 from the Prime II web site.
2.
Source: Institute of Education
Technology. (1996). Data collection methods.
Retrieved April 12, 2004 from the Open University web
site.
3. Source:
Rubin, H.J. & Rubin, I.S. (1995).
Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
[Referenced in: Thompson, N.J. & McClintock, H.O. (1998).
Demonstrating your program's worth: A primer on
evaluation for programs to prevent unintentional injury.
Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and
Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
4. Source: Office
of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (1989).
Special topics in program evaluation. In Evaluating
juvenile justice programs: A design monograph for state
planners. Washington, DC: Prepared for the U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention by Community Research Associates,
Inc. (pp. 40-41).
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